more, less, fewer + than

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY

To show difference: more, less, fewer + than

Examples

With countable nouns: more / fewer

• Eloise has more children than Chantal.
• Chantal has fewer children than Eloise.
• There are fewer dogs in Cardiff than in Bristol
• I have visited fewer countries than my friend has.
• He has read fewer books than she has.

With uncountable nouns: more / less

• Eloise has more money than Chantal.
• Chantal has less money than Eloise.
• I spend less time on homework than you do.
• Cats drink less water than dogs.
• This new dictionary gives more information than the old one.

So, the rule is:

MORE + nouns that are countable or uncountable
FEWER + countable nouns
LESS + uncountable nouns

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Comparative/superlative

Comparative/superlative

Comparative is the name for the grammar used when comparing two things. The two basic ways to compare are using as .. as or than. Examples of each are shown below:

• She's twice as old as her sister.
• He's not as stupid as he looks!
• I'm almost as good in maths as in science.
• This book is not as exciting as the last one.
• The cafeteria is not as crowded as usual.
• Russian is not quite as difficult as Chinese.

• This computer is better than that one.
• She's stronger at chess than I am.
• It's much colder today than it was yesterday.
• Our car is bigger than your car.
• This grammar topic is easier than most others.
• I find science more difficult than mathematics.
• Today's ESL lesson was more interesting than usual.

Note: In each of the example sentences above, the comparative form of the adjective is shown. See the foot of this page for information about the comparison of adverbs.

When comparing with as .. as, the adjective does not change. When comparing with than, however, some changes are necessary, depending on the number of syllables the adjective has:
1-syllable adjectives: add -er to the adjective

• My sister is much taller than me.†
• It's colder today than it was yesterday.

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually doubled in the comparative. Examples: big-bigger, fat-fatter, hot-hotter.

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -ier

• She's looking happier today.
• This grammar topic is easier than the last one.
• Why is everyone else luckier than me? †

Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs. 2-syllable adverbs ending in -y must be compared with the word more. Example: I drive more quickly (quicklier) than my brother.

Other 2-syllable adjectives: use more with the unchanged adjective

• The shops are always more crowded just before Christmas.
• Is there anything more boring than reading about grammar?
• My sister is more careful with her writing than I am with mine.

Note: The comparative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -er. Examples: simple-simpler, clever-cleverer, narrow-narrower. To be sure which comparative method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use more with the unchanged adjective

• Russian grammar is more difficult than English grammar.
• My sister is much more intelligent than me.†
• I find maths lessons more enjoyable than science lessons.
• The older you get, the more irritating you become.

---

In the superlative you talk about one thing only and how it is the best, worst, etc. You do not compare two things. The following guidelines apply to the superlative:
1-syllable adjectives: add -est to the adjective (plus the)

• My sister is the tallest in our family.
• Yesterday was the coldest day of the year so far.

Note: If the word ends: consonant-vowel-consonant, then the last consonant is usually doubled in the superlative. Examples: big-biggest, fat-fattest, hot-hottest.

2-syllable adjectives ending in -y: change the -y to -iest (plus the)

• The richest people are not always the happiest.
• Which do you think is the easiest language to learn?
• She's the luckiest person I know.

Beware: Do not confuse adjectives and adverbs. 2-syllable adverbs ending in -y form their superlative with the words the most. Example: Of all the people I know my father drives the most quickly (quickliest).

Other 2-syllable adjectives: use the most with the unchanged adjective

• The most boring thing about ESL class is doing grammar exercises.
• My sister is the most careful person I know.

Note: The superlative of some shorter 2-syllable adjectives can be formed with -er. Examples: simple-simplest, clever-cleverest, narrow-narrowest. To be sure which superlative method to use, you will need to consult a good dictionary.

Adjectives with 3 or more syllables: use the most with the unchanged adjective

• Some people think that Russian is the most difficult language.
• Albert Einstein was the most intelligent person in history.
• My most enjoyable class is English.
• You are the most irritating person I have ever met!

Following are two common irregular comaparative/superlative forms:

• good-better-the best
• bad-worse-the worst

---

The following guidelines apply to the comparative/superlative of most adverbs:
1-syllable adverbs: add -er/-est

• I can run faster than you. / I can run the fastest in my class.
• She works harder than me.† / She works the hardest of all students.

Other adverbs: use more / the most*

• She ran more quickly than me.† / Of all the students she ran the most quickly.

* In informal English it is common to hear the adjectival comparative/superlative form of two-syllable adverbs. For example: She ran quicker than me.† | She ran the quickest.

† Many educated English speakers prefer to use the nominative plus a verb rather than the accusative in such comparative sentences, especially in formal situations. They say, for example, My sister is taller than I am. or She ran more quickly than I did.
The alternative, omitting the verb as in the following examples, is considered to be even more formal and is avoided by most British English speakers: My sister is taller than I. or She ran more quickly than I.

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COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARISONS OF QUANTITY

To show difference: more, less, fewer + than
To show no difference: as much as , as many as, as few as, as little as

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COMPARATIVE + THAN

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

COMPARATIVE + THAN

To compare the difference between two people, things or events.

Examples

• Mt. Everest is higher than Mt. Blanc.
• Thailand is sunnier than Norway.
• A car is more expensive than a bicycle.
• Albert is more intelligent than Arthur.

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ( AS + ADJECTIVE + AS )

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

AS + ADJECTIVE + AS

Usage

To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use as + adjective + as:

Examples

• Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John.
• Moscow is as cold as St. Petersburg in the winter.
• Ramona is as happy as Raphael.
• Einstein is as famous as Darwin.
• A tiger is as dangerous as a lion.

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ( NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS )

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS

Difference can also be shown by using not so/as ...as:

Examples

• Mont Blanc is not as high as Mount Everest
• Norway is not as sunny as Thailand
• A bicycle is not as expensive as a car
• Arthur is not as intelligent as Albert

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FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

Using the comparative of adjectives in English is quite easy once you have understood the few simple rules that govern them. Below you will find the rules with examples for each condition. If you are not sure what a syllable or a consonant is - have a look here.

Rules

Number of syllables	Comparative	Superlative (see rule)
one syllable	+ -er	+ -est
tall	taller	tallest
one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant: double the final consonant:
fat	fatter	fattest
big	bigger	biggest
sad	sadder	saddest
Number of syllables	Comparative	Superlative
two syllables	+ -er OR more + adj	+ -est OR most + adj
ending in: -y, -ly, -ow ending in: -le, -er or -ure these common adjectives - handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet
happy	happier/ more happy	happiest/ most happy
yellow	yellower/ more yellow	yellowest/ most yellow
simple	simpler/ more simple	simplest/ most simple
tender	tenderer/ more tender	tenderest/ most tender
If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + Note: Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc:. replace the -y with -ier or -iest in the comparative and superlative form
busy	busier	busiest
Number of syllables	Comparative	Superlative
three syllables or more	more + adj	most + adj
important	more important	most important
expensive	more expensive	most expensive

Examples

• A cat is fast, a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest
• A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the heaviest
• A park bench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is more comfortable, but a sofa is the most comfortable

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IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms:

Adjective	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
little	less	least
much	more	most
far	further / farther	furthest / farthest

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Order of Adjectives

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

Order of Adjectives

Rules

Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The usual order is:
Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material

Value/opinion	delicious, lovely, charming
Size	small, huge, tiny
Age/Temperature	old, hot, young
Shape	round, square, rectangular
Colour	red, blonde, black
Origin	Swedish, Victorian, Chinese
Material	plastic, wooden, silver

Examples

• a lovely old red post-box
• some small round plastic tables
• some charming small silver ornaments

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Function of Adjectives

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

Function of Adjectives

Adjectives can:

Describe feelings or qualities:

Examples

• He is a lonely man
• They are honest people

Give nationality or origin:

Examples

• Pierre is French
• This clock is German
• Our house is Victorian

Tell more about a thing's characteristics:

Examples

• A wooden table.
• The knife is sharp.

Tell us about age:

Examples

• He's young man
• My coat is very old

Tell us about size and measurement:

Examples

• John tall man.
• This is a very long film.

Tell us about colour:

Examples

• Paul wore a red shirt.
• The sunset was crimson and gold.

Tell us about material/what something is made of:

Examples

• It was a wooden table
• She wore a cotton dress

Tell us about shape:

Examples

• A rectangular box
• A square envelope

Express a judgement or a value:

Examples

• A fantastic film
• Grammar is boring.

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FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

Form of Adjectives

Rules

1. Adjectives are invariable:
They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun.

A hot potato

Some hot potatoes

2. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use 'very' or 'really':

A very hot potato

Some really hot potatoes.

(BUT see also Modifiers/Adverbs)

Position of adjectives

a) Usually in front of a noun: A beautiful girl.
b) After verbs like "to be", "to seem" , "to look", "to taste":

Examples

• The girl is beautiful
• You look tired
• This meat tastes funny.

c) After the noun: in some fixed expressions:

Examples

• The Princess Royal
• The President elect
• a court martial

d) After the noun with the adjectives involved, present, concerned:

Examples

1. I want to see the people involved/concerned (= the people who have something to do with the matter)
2. Here is a list of the people present (= the people who were in the building or at the meeting)

Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different meaning:

• An involved discussion = detailed, complex
• A concerned father = worried, anxious
• The present situation = current, happening now

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THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS

Forming the possessive

The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. 'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is one of the relationships it expresses :

• John owns a car. ('John' is the possessor or owner)
• It is John's car.

• America has some gold reserves. ('America' is the owner)
• They are America's gold reserves.

It can also express other relationships, for example:

where someone works or studies or spends time:

• John goes to this school. This is John's school.
• John sleeps in this room. This is John's room.
  
  

a family relationship:

• John's mother
• The Queen's daughter
  
  

qualities:

• John's patience.
• The politician's hypocrisy.

Form

To form the possessive, add 's ('apostrophe -s') to the noun.
If the noun is plural, or already ends in -s, just add:' (an apostrophe).
For names ending in -s:
In speaking we add the sound /z/ to the name, but in writing it is possible to use either 's or just '. The 's form is more common. e.g. Thomas's book, James's shop.

Examples

• The car of John = John's car.
• The room of the girls = The girls' room.
• Clothes for men = Men's clothes.
• The sister of Charles = Charles' sister.
• The boat of the sailors = The sailors' boat.

There are also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used:

Time expressions	Other expressions
a day's work	For God's sake!
a fortnight's holiday	a pound's worth of apples.
a month's pay	the water's edge
today's newspaper	a stone's throw away (= very near)
in a year's time	at death's door (= very ill)
	in my mind's eye (= in my imagination)

The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner.

Examples

the grocer's	the doctor's	the vet's
the newsagent's	the chemist's	Smith's
the dentist's	Tommy Tucker's	Luigi's
Saint Mary's	Saint James's

1. Shall we go to Luigi's for lunch?
2. I've got an appointment at the dentist's at eleven o'clock.
3. Is Saint Mary's an all-girls school?

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NATIONALITIES

NATIONALITIES

1. Country: I live in England.
2. Adjective: He reads English literature.
3. Noun: She is an Englishwoman.

COUNTRY	ADJECTIVE	NOUN
Africa	African	an African
America	American	an American
Argentina	Argentinian	an Argentinian
Austria	Austrian	an Austrian
Autralia	Australian	an Australian
Bangladesh	Bangladesh(i)	a Bangladeshi
Belgium	Belgian	a Belgian
Brazil	Brazilian	a Brazilian
Britain	British	a Briton/Britisher
Cambodia	Cambodian	a Cambodian
Chile	Chilean	a Chilean
China	Chinese	a Chinese
Colombia	Colombian	a Colombian
Croatia	Croatian	a Croat
the Czech Republic	Czech	a Czech
Denmark	Danish	a Dane
England	English	an Englishman/Englishwoman
Finland	Finnish	a Finn
France	French	a Frenchman/Frenchwoman
Germany	German	a German
Greece	Greek	a Greek
Holland	Dutch	a Dutchman/Dutchwoman
Hungary	Hungarian	a Hungarian
Iceland	Icelandic	an Icelander
India	Indian	an Indian
Indonesia	Indonesian	an Indonesian
Iran	Iranian	an Iranian
Iraq	Iraqi	an Iraqi
Ireland	Irish	an Irishman/Irishwoman
Israel	Israeli	an Israeli
Jamaica	Jamaican	a Jamaican
Japan	Japanese	a Japanese
Mexico	Mexican	a Mexican
Morocco	Moroccan	a Moroccan
Norway	Norwegian	a Norwegian
Peru	Peruvian	a Peruvian
the Philippines	Philippine	a Filipino
Poland	Polish	a Pole
Portugal	Portuguese	a Portuguese
Rumania	Rumanian	a Rumanian
Russia	Russian	a Russian
Saudi Arabia	Saudi, Saudi Arabian	a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian
Scotland	Scottish	a Scot
Serbia	Serbian	a Serb
the Slovak Republic	Slovak	a Slovak
Sweden	Swedish	a Swede
Switzerland	Swiss	a Swiss
Thailand	Thai	a Thai
The USA	American	an American
Tunisia	Tunisian	a Tunisian
Turkey	Turkish	a Turk
Vietnam	Vietnamese	a Vietnamese
Wales	Welsh	a Welshman/Welshwoman
Yugoslavia	Yugoslav	a Yugoslav

Note: We use the + nationality adjective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural verb, to refer to all people of that nationality:
The Chinese are very hard-working.
The Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon.

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USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS WITH NOUNS

Capital letters are used with:

Names and titles of people

• Winston Churchill
• Marilyn Monroe
• the Queen of England
• the President of the United States
• the Headmaster of Eton
• Doctor Mathews
• Professor Samuels.

Note: The personal pronoun 'I' is always written with a capital letter.

Titles of works, books etc.

• War and Peace
• The Merchant of Venice
• Crime and Punishment
• Tristan and Isolde

Months of the year

January	July
February	August
March	September
April	October
May	November
June	December

Days of the week

Monday	Friday
Tuesday	Saturday
Wednesday	Sunday
Thursday

Seasons

Seasons

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Holidays

Christmas	Easter	New Year's Day
Boxing Day	May Day	Thanksgiving Day

Geographical names...
Names of countries and continents

America	England	Scotland
China	Peru	Albania
Africa	Europe	Asia

Names of regions, states, districts etc.

Sussex	California	Queensland
Provence	Tuscany	Vaud
Florida	Costa Brava	Tyrol

Names of cities, towns, villages etc.

London	Cape Town	Rome
Florence	Bath	Wagga Wagga
Vancouver	Wellington	Peking

Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes etc.

the Atlantic	the Dead Sea	the Pacific
Lake Leman	Lake Victoria	Lake Michigan
the Rhine	the Thames	the Nile

Names of geographical formations

the Himalayas

the Alps

the Sahara

Adjectives relating to nationality nouns

France - French music

Australia - Australian animals

Germany - German literature

Arabia - Arabic writing

Indonesia - Indonesian poetry

China - Chinese food

Names of streets, buildings, parks etc.

Park Lane	Central Avenue	Pall Mall
George Street	Sydney Opera House	Central Park
Hyde Park	the Empire State Building	Wall Street

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COMPOUND NOUNS

COMPOUND NOUNS

Formation

Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The second part identifies the object or person in question (man, friend, tank, table, room). The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is (police, boy, water, dining, bed):

What type / what purpose	What or who
police	man
boy	friend
water	tank
dining	table
bed	room

The two parts may be written in a number of ways :
1. as one word.
Examples policeman, boyfriend
2. as two words joined with a hyphen.
Examples dining-table
3. as two separate words.
Examples fish tank.
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you know well as one word, and the others as two words.

The two parts may be:	Examples
noun + noun	bedroom water tank motorcycle printer cartridge
noun + verb	rainfall haircut train-spotting
noun + adverb	hanger-on passer-by
verb + noun	washing machine driving licence swimming pool
verb + adverb*	lookout take-off drawback
adjective + noun	greenhouse software redhead
adjective + verb	dry-cleaning public speaking
adverb + noun	onlooker bystander
adverb + verb*	output overthrow upturn input

Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separate words.
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun (e.g. greenhouse) and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house).
In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable:

a 'greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun)
a green 'house = house painted green (adjective and noun)
a 'bluebird = type of bird (compound noun)
a blue 'bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)

*Many common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb + adverb or adverb + verb).

Examples

breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up, hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup, output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.

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COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are for things we can count

Examples

dog, horse, man, shop, idea.

They usually have a singular and plural form.

Examples

two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas.

Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count

Examples

tea, sugar, water, air, rice.

They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities.

Examples

knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love.

They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. We cannot say sugars, angers, knowledges.

Examples of common uncountable nouns:

• money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty, knowledge.

We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of one of these nouns, use a word or expression like:
some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of...

Examples

• There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
• He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
• They've got a lot of furniture.
• Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?

Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in English. Some of the most common of these are:

accommodation advice baggage behaviour bread furniture information luggage

news progress traffic travel trouble weather work

BE CAREFUL with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountable in English:

• She has long blonde hair

It can also be countable when referring to individual hairs:

• My father's getting a few grey hairs now

See also : Adjectives - Comparisons of quantity

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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

Most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es.

Examples

Singular	Plural
boat	boats
hat	hats
house	houses
river	rivers

A noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies.

Examples

Singular	Plural
a cry	cries
a fly	flies
a nappy	nappies
a poppy	poppies
a city	cities
a lady	ladies
a baby	babies

There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. Some of the most common ones are listed below.

Examples of irregular plurals

Singular	Plural
woman	women
man	men
child	children
tooth	teeth
foot	feet
person	people
leaf	leaves
half	halves
knife	knives
wife	wives
life	lives
loaf	loaves
potato	potatoes
cactus	cacti
focus	foci
fungus	fungi
nucleus	nuclei
syllabus	syllabi/syllabuses
analysis	analyses
diagnosis	diagnoses
oasis	oases
thesis	theses
crisis	crises
phenomenon	phenomena
criterion	criteria
datum	data

Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

Examples

Singular	Plural
sheep	sheep
fish	fish
species	species
aircraft	aircraft

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Examples

• news The news is on at 6.30 p.m.
• athletics Athletics is good for young people.
• linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.
• darts Darts is a popular game in England.
• billiards Billiards is played all over the world.

Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Examples

• trousers My trousers are too tight.
• jeans Her jeans are black.
• glasses Those glasses are his.

others include:

• savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

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NOUN GENDER

Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?"
They give names to things, people and qualities.

Examples

dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty, truth, world.

NOUN GENDER

In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words.

Examples

Different words:

Masculine	Feminine
man father uncle boy husband	woman mother aunt girl wife

Different forms:

Masculine	Feminine
actor prince hero waiter widower	actress princess heroine waitress widow

Some nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject:

Examples

cousin	teenager	teacher	doctor
cook	student	parent	friend
relation	colleague	partner	leader

• Mary is a doctor. She is a doctor
• Peter is a doctor. He is a doctor.
• Arthur is my cousin. He is my cousin.
• Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin.

It is possible to make the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'.

• a female student; a male cousin

For professions, we can add the word 'woman'

• a woman doctor; a woman journalist.

In some cases nouns describing things are given gender.

• I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.
• France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment.
  
• I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth, she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.

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